Organizational Theories

a. The new world of management

1. Frederick Winslow Taylor (management as science), 1856 – 1917 was an American engineer, inventor and consultant.

Books: Shop Management, Harper & Row, New York, 1903; The Principles of Scientific Management, Harper and Row, New York, 1913.

Scientific Management, based on the notion that there is a single ‘best way’ to fulfill a particular job; and that it is a matter of matching people to the task and supervising, rewarding and punishing them according to their performance. Under scientific management, the job of the management is to plan and control the work.

2. Henri Fayol (defining management), 1841 – 1925, was a French engineer and manager.

Books: General and Industrial Management, Pitman, London, 1949.

14 principles of management:

1. Division of work

2. Authority and responsibility
3. Discipline
4. Unity of command
5. Unity of direction
6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest
7. Remuneration of personnel
8. Centralization
9. Scalar chain (line of authority)
10. Order
11. Equity
12. Stability of tenure of personnel
13. Initiative
14. Esprit de corps

3. Max Weber, 1864 – 1920, was a German.

Bureaucratic organization: the ideal mechanical means of organizing a business characterized, according to Max Weber, by ‘precision, speed, unambiguity, knowledge of files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict subordination, reduction of friction and of material and personal costs.’ Weber framed this more as a Platonic ideal than a likely reality.

4. Louis Allen, (1973) in his book Professional Management put

forward four functions of management based on a belief that managers think and act rationally – planning, organizing, leading and controlling. Allen broke these functions down into 19 management activities.

1. Planning function – forecasting, developing objectives, programming, scheduling, budgeting, developing procedures, and developing policies

2. Organizing function – developing organizing structure, delegating, developing relationships.

3 Leading function – decision making, communicating, motivating, selecting and developing people

4. Controlling function – developing performance standards, measuring, evaluating and correcting performance.

5. Henry Mintzberg (The prophet of change), 1909, American writer, the 20^th century’s most influential thinker.

(The Nature of Managerial Work, 1973) identified three overall categories and specific roles within each: Interpersonal, informational, and decisional.

Books: Concept of the corporation, John Day, New York, 1946; The New Society, Heinemann, London, 1951; The Practice of Management, Harper and Row, New York, 1954; Managing for Results, Heinemann, London 1964; The Age of Discontinuity, Heinemann, London, 1969; Management: Task, Responsibilities, Practices, Heinemann, London, 1974; Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Heinemann, London, 1985; The New Realities, Heinemann, London, 1989; Managing the Non profit Organization, Harper Collins, New York, 1990; Managing for the future, Dutton, New York, 1992; Post-Capitalist Society, Harper, New York, 1993; Managing in Times of Great Change, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 1995; Adventures of a Bystander, originally published in 1978 but republished by John Wiley, New York, 1998.

His greatest achievements are the Practice of Management (1954) and Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices (1973). In the latter, a massive work, he identifies five ‘basic operations in the work of the manager’. These are:

- setting objectivities

- organizing

- motivating and communicating

- measuring

- developing people (including him or herself)

From the machine age to the information age, then knowledge management and intellectual capital

Intellectual capital is considered a more recent study in management, pioneered by Skandia. Other famous readings as:-

1. Edvinsson, Leif, and Malone, Michael, Intellectual Capital, Harper Business, New York, 1997.

2. Klein, David, A (editor), The Strategic Management of Intellectual Capital, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1997

3. Roos, Johan (editor), Intellectual Capital, New York, University Press, New York, 1998

4. Stewart, Thomas, A., Intellectual Capital, Doubleway, New York, 1997

I forecast, the next up coming management focus will be in concern of ‘logical management’. (Julian, 2008)

b. The new world of organizations

1. Henry Ford (1863 – 1947), American (car maker).

Books: My Life and Work, Doubleaday Page & Co., New York, 1923.

2. Alfred P. Sloan (1875 – 1966), American (car company executive).

Books: My Years with General Motors, Doubleday, New York, 1963.

Chandler, Alfred, D, Strategy and Structure, MIT Press, Boston, 1962.

Chandler, Alfred, D, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1977.

Chandler, Alfred, D, and Deams, H. (editors), Managerial Hierarchies, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1980.

3. Charles Handy (1932), British, (educator and writer).

Books: Understanding Organizations, Penguin, London, 1976; The Future of Work, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1984; Gods of Management, Business Books, London, 1986; The Making of Managers, with John Constable, Longman, London, 1988; The Age of Unreason, Business Books, London, 1989; Inside Organizations: 21 Ideas for Managers, BBC Books, London, 1990; The Empty Raincoat, Hutchinson, London, 1994; Beyond Certainty, Century, London, 1995; The Hungry Spirit, Hutchinson, London, 1997.

Key books:

Ghoshal, Sumantra and Bartlett, Christopher, The Individualized Corporation, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1997.

March, James G and Simon, Herbert, A, Organizations, John Wiley, New York, 1958.

Pugh, DS. (editor), Organization Theory, Selected Readings, Penguin, London, 1990.

Waterman, Robert, The Frontiers of Excellence, Nicholas Brealey, London, 1994.

Weber, Max, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, Oxford University Press, New York, 1947.

Creating and implementing strategy

1. Igor Ansoff ( 1918) American, Consultant and educator

Books: Corporate Strategy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965; Strategic Management, Macmillan, London, 1979; Implanting Strategic Management, Prentice Hall, London, 2^nd edition, 1990.

Ansoff formulated a ‘strategic success paradigm’ which specifics conditions which optimize a firm’s profitability. This paradigm has five key elements:

- there is no universal success formula for all firms

- the driving variable which dictates the strategy required for success of a firm is the level of turbulence in its environment

- a firm’s success cannot be optimized unless the aggressiveness of its strategy is aligned with the turbulence in its environment

- a firm’s success cannot be optimized unless management capacity is also aligned with the environment.

- The key internal capacity variables which jointly determine a firm’s success, are cognitive, psychological, sociological, political and anthropological.

2. Michael Porter (1947), American, Educator and consultant

Books: Competitive Strategy, Free Press, New York, 1980; Competitive Advantage, Free Press, New York, 1985; The Competitive Advantage of Nations, Macmillan, London, 1990.

3. Henry Mintzberg (1939), Canadian educator

Books: The nature of managerial work, Harper & Row, New York, 1973; The structuring of organizations, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1979; Structures in fives: Designing effective organizations, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1983 – an expurgated version of the 1979 book; Power in and around organizations, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1983; Mintzberg on Management: inside our strange world of organizations, Free Press, New York, 1989; The strategy process: concepts, contexts, cases, with JB Quinn, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1991 (2^nd edition); The rise and fall of strategic planning, Prentice Hall International, Hemel Hempstead, 1994.

Key Books:

1. Kaplan, Robert S and Cooper, Robin, Cost and Effect: Using Integrated Cost Systems to drive Profitability and Performance, Harvard Business School Press, 1998.
2. Kaplan, Robert S and Norton, David, P. The Balanced Scorecard: Translating Strategy into Action, Harvard Business School Press, 1996
3. Hamel, Gary and Prahalad, CK, Competing for the future, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1994.
4. Markides, Costas, Diversification, Refocusing and Economic Performance, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1995
5. Moore, Jl, Writers on Strategy and Strategic Management, Penguin, London, 1992.
6. Ohmae, Kenichi, The Mind of the Strategist, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1082.

New ways of managing people

1. Mary Parker Follet, 1868-1933, was an American political scientist

Books: The new state: Group organization, Longman, London, 1918; Creative Experience, Longman, London, 1924; Dynamic Administration, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1941; Freedom and Coordination, Pitman, London, 1949.

2. Elton Mayo, 1880 – 1949, was an Australian psychologist

Books: The Human Problems of an Industrial civilization, Macmillan, New York, 1933; The Social Problems of an Industrial civilization, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1945.

3. Douglas Macgregor, 1906-64, was an American psychologist

Books: The Human side of enterprise, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.

4. Abraham Maslow, 1908-70, was an American psychologist.

Books: Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, New York, 1954; Towards a Psychology of Being, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1982; Maslow on Management, John Wiley, New York, 1998.

5. Frederick Herzberg, 1923, an American psychologist

Books: The Motivation to work with Mausner and Snyderman, Wiley, New York, 1959.

6. Tom Peters, (evangelizing people), 1942, is an American consultant and writer.

Books: In search of excellence, with Robert Waterman, Harper and Row, New York and London, 1982; A Passion for Excellence, with Nancy Austin, Collins, London, 1985; Thriving on Chaos, Macmillan, London, 1988; Liberation Management, Alfred Knopf, New York, 1992; The Tom Peters Seminar, Vintage Books, New York, 1994; The Pursuit of Wow!, Vintage Books, New York, 1994; The Circle of Innovation, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1997.

7. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, (creating empowerment) 1943, is an American consultant and educator

Books: Men and women of the corporation, Basic Books, 1977; The Change Masters, Allen and Unwin, London, 1984; When Giants Learn to dance, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1989; World Class, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1995; Rosabeth Moss Kanter on the Frontiers of Management, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1997.

8. Richard Pascale (From change to transformation), 1938, is an American educator and consultant.

Books: The Art of Japanese Management, with Anthony Athos, Penguin, London, 1981; Managing on the Edge, Viking, London, 1990.

Key Books:

1. Beer, M, Spector, B., Lawrence, PR, Mills, DQ and Walton, R, Managing Human Assets, Free Press, New York, 1984.
2. Blyton, P. and Turnbull, P., Reassessing Human Resource Management, Sage, London 1992.
3. Storey, J. (editor), New Perspectives on Human Resource Management, Routledge, 1989.
4. Storey, J., Developments in the Management of Human Resources, Blackwell, Oxford, 1992.
5. Tyson, S and Fell, A, Evaluating the Personnel Function, Hutchinson, 1986.
6. Edwards, Mark and Ewen, Ann, J, 360 Degree Feedback, AMACON, New York, 1996.
7. Grote, Richard C and Grote, Dick, The Complete Guide to Performance Appraisal, AMACOM, New York, 1996.
8. Lepsinger, Richard, and Lucia, Antoinette, D., The Art and Science of 360 degree feedback, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1997.
9. Tornow, Walter (editor), Maximizing the Value of 360 Degree Feedback, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1998.
10. Bennis, Warren, Benne KD and Chin, R, The Planning of Change, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970 (2^nd Edition).
11. Cunningham, Ian, The Wisdom of Strategic Learning, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead, 1994.
12. Kanter, Rosabeth Moss, Stein, Barry and Jick, Todd D, The Challenge of Organizational Change, Free Press, New York 1992.
13. Vaill, Peter, Managing as a Performance Art, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1990.

The quality revolution

1. W Edwards Deming, (The quality gospel), 1903-93, was an American statistician and consultant.

Books: Quality, Productivity and Competitive Position, MIT Center for Advanced Engineering Study, MIT, Mass., 1982; Out of the Crisis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988.

2. James Champy, 1942, is an American consultant.

Books: Reengineering the Corporation, with Michael Hammer, Harper Business, New York, 1993; Reengineering Management, Harper Business, New York, 1995.

3. Michael Hammer, 1948, is an American consultant.

Books: Reengineering the Corporation, with James Champy, Harper Business, New York, 1993; The Engineering Revolution with Steven Stanton, Harper Collins, New York, 1995.

Key Books:

1. Crosby, Philip, Quality is Free, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.
2. Feigenbaum, AV, Total Quality Control, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983.
3. Juran, Joseph, Managerial Breakthrough, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
4. Juran, Joseph, Juran on Planning for Quality, Free Press, New York, 1988.
5. Schonberger, Richard, Building a Chain of Customers, Free Press, New York, 1990.
6. Monden, Yasuhiro, Toyota Production System, Institute of Industrial Engineers, 1988.
7. Ohno, Taichi, Toyota Production System, Productivity Press, 1988.
8. Womack, James and Jones, Daniel T, Lean Thinking, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1996.
9. Womack, James, Jones, Daniel T and Roos, Daniel, The Machine That changed the world, Rawson Associates/Macmillan, 1990.

Reinventing marketing

1. Ted Levitt, 1925, is an American educator.

Books: Innovation in Marketing, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962; The Marketing Mode, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969; The Marketing Imagination, Free Press, New York, 1983; Thinking About Management, Free Press, New York, 1991.

Key Books:

1. Hill, Sam and Rifkin, Glenn, Radical Marketing, Harper Business, New York, 1998.
2. Kotler, Philip, Marketing Management: analysis, planning, and control, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1993.
3. Webster, FE, Market-driven Management, John Wiley, New York, 1994.
4. Kotler, Philip, Principles of Marketing, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1996
5. Kotler, Philip, Marketing – An Introduction, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1987.
6. McCarthy, E Jerome, Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach, Irwin, Homewood, Illinois, 1981.
7. Christopher, Martin, Payne, Adrian, and Ballantyne, D., Relationship Marketing, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1991.
8. Cram, Tony, The Power of Relationship Marketing, FT/Pitman, London, 1995.
9. Payne, Adrian, The Essence of Services Marketing, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1993.
10. Reichheld, Frederick, The Loyalty Effect, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1996.
11. Aaker, David, Managing brand equity, Free Press, New York, 1991.
12. Crainer, Stuart, The real power of brands, FT/Pitman, London, 1995.
13. Kapferer, Jean-Noel, Strategic Brand Management, Kogan Page, London 1992.

Leadership

1. Warren Bennis, (Doing the right thing) 1925, is an American educator.

Books: Leaders: The strategies for taking charge, with Burt Nanus, Harper and Row, New York, 1985; On becoming a leader, Addison Wesley, Reading, 1989; Why Leaders can’t lead, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1989; An invented life: reflections on leadership and change, Addison Wesley, Reading, 1993.

The evolution of leadership

- Great man theory: Great man theory were the stuff of the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, thought their residue remains in much popular thinking on the subject. The Great Man Theory is based around the idea that the leader is born with innate, unexplainable and for mere mortals, incomprehensible leadership skills. They are, therefore, elevated as heroes.

- Trait theory: This theory continues to fill numerous volumes. If you know who the Great Man are, you can then examine their personalities and behavior to develop traits of leaders. This is plausible, but deeply flawed. For all the books attempting to identify common traits among leaders there is little correlation.

- Power and Influence theory: This approach chooses to concentrate on the networks of power and influence generated by the leader. It is, however, based on the assumption that all roads lead to the leader and negates the role of followers and the strengths of organizational culture.

- Behaviorist theory: In some ways behaviorist school continues to hold sway. It emphasizes what leaders actually do rather than their characteristics. Its advocates include Blake and Mouton and Rensis Likert.

- Situational theory: Situational theory views leadership as specific to a situation rather than a particular sort of personality. It is based round the plausible notion that different circumstances require different forms of leadership. Its champions include Kenneth Blanchard and Paul Hersey whose influence book, Situational Leadership Theory, remains a situationalist manifesto.

- Contingency theory: Developing from situational theory, contingency approaches attempt to select situational variables which best indicate the most appropriate leadership style to suit the circumstances.

- Transactional theory: Increasingly fashionable, transactional theory places emphasis on the relationship between leaders and followers. It examines the mutual benefit from an exchange-based relationship with the leader offering certain things, such as resources or rewards, in return for others, such as the followers’ commitment or acceptance of the leader’s authority.

- Attribution theory: This evaluates followership to new importance, concentrating on the factors which lie behind the followers’ attribution of leadership to a particular leader.

- Transformational theory: While transactional leadership models are based on the extrinsic motivation of an exchange relationship, transformational leadership is based on intrinsic motivation. As such, the emphasis is on commitment rather than compliance from the followers. The transformational leader is, therefore, a proactive, innovative, visionary.

Key Books:

1. Adair, John, Effective Leadership, A modern Guide to developing leadership skills, Pan, London, 1988.
2. Burns, James McGregor, Leadership, Harper and Row, New York, 1978.
3. Kotter, John, A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management, Free Press, New York, 1990.
4. Maucher, Helmut, Leadership in Action: tough minded strategies from the global giant, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994.
5. Syrett, Michel and Hogg, Clare (editors), Frontiers of leadership, and essential reader, Blackwell, Oxford, 1992.
6. White, Randall P., Hodgson, Philip and Crainer, Stuart, The future of leadership, FT/Pitman, London, 1996.
7. Zaleznik, Abraham, The Managerial Mystique: Restoring leadership in business, Harper and Row, New York, 1990.

Learning and development

1. Chris Argyris, (The learning challenge), 1923, an American educator.

Books: Personality and organization, Harper and Row, New York, 1957; Overcoming organizational defenses, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1990; Organizational learning: a theory of action perspective, with Donald Schon, Addison Wesley, Wokingham, 1978; On Organizational learning, Blackwell, Cambridge, 1993; Knowledge for Action, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1993.

2. Peter Senge, 1947, an American educator

Books: The fifth Discipline, Doubleday, New York, 1990; The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook, with Roberts, Ross, Smith and Kleiner, Nicholas Brealey, London, 1994.

Key books:

1. Dotlich, David and Noel, James, L, Action learning: How the World’s Top companies are re-creating their leaders and themselves, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1998.
2. Mumford, Alan, (editor), Action Learning at Work, Gower, London, 1997.
3. Pedler, Mike (editor), Action Learning in Practice, Gower, London, 1997
4. Revans, Reg, Action Learning, Blond and Briggs, London, 1979.

Global Management

1. Fons Trompenaars (Cosmopolitan man), 1952, is a Ducth consultant.

Books: Riding the Waves of Culture, with Charles Hampden-Turner, Nicholas Brealey, London, 1993; The Seven Cultures of Capitalism, with Charles Hampden-Turner, Piatkus, London, 1994; Mastering the infinite Game, with Charles Hampden-Turner, Capstone, Oxford, 1997.

Key Books:

1. Barlett, Christopher and Ghoshal, Sumantra, Managing across borders, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1989.
2. Bernett, S and Wallace, T, World Class Manufacturing, Oliver Wight, 1994.
3. Robock, SH and Simmonds, K, International Business and Multinational Enterprises, Irwin, Homewood, Illinois, 1989.

Writers on Organizations

1. The Structure of Organizations

- Max Weber

- Derek Pugh and the Aston Group

- Joan Woodward

- Elliott Jaques and the Glacier Investigations

- Alfred D. Chandler

- Henry Mintzberg

2. The Organization in its Environment

- Tom Burns

- Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch

- James D. Thompson

- Jeffrey Pfeffer and Gerald R. Salancik

- Raymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow

- Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman

- Oliver E. Williamson

- Geert Hofstede

3. The Management of Organizations

- Henri Fayol

- Frederick W. Taylor

- Harry Braverman and the ‘Labor Process’ Debate

- Peter F. Drucker

- Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman

- William Ouchi

- Rosabeth Moss Kanter

4. Decision-making in Organizations

- Herbert A. Simon

- James G. March

- Charles E. Lindblom

- Victor H. Vroom

- Michel Crozier

- Arnold S. Tannenbaum

5. People in Organizations

- Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Investigations

- Rensis Likert and Douglas McGregor

- Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton

- Chris Argyris

- Edgar H. Schein

- Frederick Hezberg

- Fred E. Fiedler

- Eric Trist and the work of the Tavistock Institute

- David Silverman

References:

1. Crainer, S., 1998, ‘Key Management ideas’, Financial Times, London
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Glossary of Management thinkers

John Adair	The leading UK thinker on the subject of leadership. He has had an interesting career and his books have proved influential. His key phrase is action-centered leadership. Susceptible to gung-ho interpretations of leadership, but notable for his persuasive insistence that leadership is a skill which can be developed. Key work: Effective Leadership (1983)
Igor Ansoff	The doyen of strategic management. His books are far from being light reading, indeed they have a tendency to become tortuously academic. Yet, Ansoff’s contribution is undoubted. His book, Strategic Management remains an important stage in the development of strategy. His later work has lacked its impact. He has brought the world the Ansoff Matrix and added synergy to the management vocabulary. Key Works: Corporate strategy (1965); Strategic Management (1979); Implanting Strategic Management (1984).
Chris Argyris	The father of the learning organization though MIT’s Peter Senge tends to receive most of the plaudits. Argyris’s work has never become populist though it has retained its popularity. He has pursued an admirably independent line, coaxing ideas along rather than detonating them in front of gasping audiences. His best work has a knack of infiltrating the underside of organization – and, more depressingly, human behavior. A convinced romantic, he believes people’s potential can – and should – be fulfilled. Introduced the concepts of single-loop and double-loop learning. Key works: Personality and Organization (1957); Organizational Learning (with the late Donald Schon, 1978).
Chester Barnard (1886 – 1961)	Unlike most influential management theorists, Barnard was actually a manager. His books on organizational and executive behavior have proved important, despite their inaccessibility. Key works: The Functions of the Executive (1938); Organization and Management (1948).
Percy Barnevik	The former chief executive of Asea Brown Boveri deserves mention simply because of the vast amount of management literature he and his company have spawned. ABB is venerated as the way a modern global company should be run. Barnevik has proved that headquarters don’t need to be huge buildings filled with staff, but can be small, dynamic and still do the job. He introduced a complex matrix structure which reaped impressive results.
Christopher Bartlett	Harvard Business School Professor and co-author, with Sumantra Ghoshal, of Managing Across Borders (1989) – one of the key books in understanding the new world of the global organization. They argue that there is now an emergent organization form – the entrepreneurial organization – taking the place of the multi-divisional structure. The Individualized Corporation further cemented their reputations. Key Works: Managing Across Borders (1989); The Individualized Corporation (1997).
Warren Bennis	Unfortunately, Bennis is automatically associated with leadership. Yet, his career has been more broad ranging. He brought the world adhocracy and has predicted many of the issues which are only now emerging. His best read book is one co-authored with Burt Nanus, Leaders. It is not his best, but provides idiosyncratic examples of leadership in practice from Neil Armstrong to a tightrope walker. Key Works: The Temporary Society (1968) The Unconscious Conspiracy (1976); Leaders (with Burt Nanus, 1985); Organizing Genius (with Patricia Ward Biederman, 1997).
Robert Blake	The joint creator of the managerial grid with Jane Mouton. This was fashionable in the 1960s.
Edward de Bono	The Maltese-born creator of lateral thinking has forged a brilliant career from an idea which is more intriguing than it is practical. His output numbers 43 books. He now argues that competition is no longer enough and ‘sureptition’ (which concerns the creation of value monopolies) is going to the game of the future. He has his own private island of Tessera in Venice, from which he organizes ‘creativity projects’. Key works: The Use of Lateral Thinking (1968).
James McGregor Burns	Highly influential leadership theorist; Invented the terms transactional (focused on immediate events) and transformational leadership (long-term and visionary). Key work: Leadership (1978)
Andrew Campbell	The UK academic is nothing if not versatile. His books include one on Scottish country dancing as well as others covering topics as weighty as the role of vision and corporate-level strategy. Formerly with McKinsey he is now at the London-based Ashridge Strategic Management Centre. In Strategies and Styles, Campbell and co-author Michael Goold identify three approaches a parent company can take to its businesses: financial control; strategic planning and strategic control. In corporate-level strategy, Campbell attacks the performance of most parent companies, describing them as ‘value destroyers’ rather than value creators. Key works: Strategies and styles (with Michael Goold, 1987); Corporate-level strategy (with Michael Goold and Marcus Alexander, 1994).
James Champy	Co-author of the highly successful Reengineering The Corporation (which Michael Hammer). The book is evangelical and passionate about the need for reengineering. Doubts remain about its long-term impact. A consultant, he was co-founder of CSC Index and now runs the consulting operations of Perot Systems. Key Work: Reengineering The Corporation (with Michael Hammer, 1993)
Alfred D Chandler Jr.	The economic historian whose work formed a highly effective bridgehead in the examination of strategy and the evolution of strategic management. He championed the decentralized organizational form and was an advocate of Alfred Sloan’s strategy at General Motors. Key work: Strategy and Structure (1962).
Philip Crosby:	One of the leading quality consultants. Formerly with ITT, his catch-phrase, in a business of catch-phrases, is ‘Quality is free’.
W Edwards Deming (1900-1993)	Deming’s rejection in the US and his success in Japan is one of the great business stories. It took a TV documentary to propel Deming to overnight fame in the world’s boardrooms. He spent the last years of his life desperately traveling the world preaching his gospels, built around his framed, almost biblical, 14 points. Key work: Out of the Crisis (1982)
Peter Drucker	Born in Austria, though he spent most of his life in California, Drucker is the pre-eminent management thinker of the twentieth century. His work is all-encompassing and always worth reading. Even in his eighties, he remains a shrewd and perceptive commentator on virtually every aspect of management and business. Key works: The Practice of Management (1954); The Age of Discontinuity (1969); Management Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices (1974); and virtually all other of his many books.
Henri Fayol (1841-1925)	Sadly, Fayol is now virtually unacknowledged, yet he was Europe’s first significant management thinker. A French businessman he distilled the core functions of management down to 14 elements. Key work: General and Industrial Management (1949)
Mary Parker Follett (1868 – 1933)	The American political scientist has recently been rediscovered. Among the first to describe the importance of team working, her work and had some impact in Japan but was largely neglected in the United States. Key Work: Mary Parker Follett: Prophet of Management (1995).
Henry Ford (1864 – 1947)	The first to translate scientific management into practice. He is best known for his achievements in mass production. This trends to overshadow an extraordinary life and his extraordinary business success.
Jay Forrester	MIT academic who invented core memory during the first wave of modern digital computers, also pioneered the field of system dynamics – analysis of the behavior of systems.
Harold Geneen (1919-97)	The legendary leader of ITT during the 1960s. He was the archetypal numbers man, driven by an unquenchable desire for information. Though he expanded ITT rapidly and recorded excellent results, the company floundered after his departure. Among modern managers who acknowledge Geneen as an influence are Sir Colin Marshall, chairman of British Airways. Key works: Managing (1984); The Synergy Myth (1997).
Sumantra Ghosphal	Now professor of Strategic leadership at London Business School, after spells at INSEAD and MIT. Working with Harvard’s Christopher Bartlett he has become one of the most respected business gurus of the 1990s. Key works: Managing Across Borders: The Transnational Solution (1988); Transnational Management (1990); Organization Theory and the Multinational Corporation (1993); The Individualized Corporation (1997)
Gary Hamel	Visiting professor of Strategic Management at London Business London and formerly with the University of Michigan. Author and co-author of a number of highly influential Harvard Business Review articles and, with CK Prahalad, of Competiting for the Future. Founder of the consulting firm, Strategos. Key work: Competing for the Future (1994).
Michael Hammer	Former MIT and computer science professor and joint author, with James Champy, of the best-selling Reengineering The Corporation. Hammer is derisory of companies which take only gradual or cautious steps to improve customer service, when they should be making striking improvements in their basic operations. ‘We’ve had the same answer for 40 years, but the questions have changed. If the taxicab engine is broken, I don’t care if the driver is friendly’, he says. Key work: Reengineering The corporation (with James Champy, 1993).
Charles Handy	Irish-born Charles Handy has seen his reputation burgeon in recent years. His increasingly bleak perspectives on the nature of work and organizations are essential reading. He developed the concept of the Shamrock Organization and continues to argue the case for federalism. Key works: The Age of Unreason (1989); The Empty Raincoat (1994).
Frederick Herzberg	Now based at the university of Utah, Herzberg was a major figure in management thinking during the 1960s. He took Abraham Maslow’s work a stage further, identifying motivator and hygience factors as the two sides of motivation. Key work: The motivation to work (with Mausner and Snyderman, 1959).
Geert Hofstede	The Dutch-based anthropologist and academic is increasingly recognized for his work on corporate and international cultures. Key work: Cultures and Organizations (1991).
Joseph Juran	The ‘other’ quality guru. Juran has lived somewhat in Deming’s shadow. Their careers followed similar paths and Juran continues to try to get his quality message across. Less statistical in his orientation that Deming, Juran foresaw the rise of empowerment, some 40 years ago. Key Work: Juran on Planning for Quality (1988).
Rosabeth Moss Kanter	Harvard Business School’s Moss Kanter possess a formidable intellect. A former editor of the Harvard Business Review, her work is based on humane, liberal premises. She championed empowerment and has contributed some of the best books on managing change. Key works: Change Masters (1984); When Giants Learn to Dance (1989); World Class (1995); Rosabeth Moss Kanter on the Frontiers of Management (1997).
Philip Kotler	‘Marketing takes a day to learn. Unfortunately it takes a lifetime to master’, says Kotler. He is a prolific author and his texts are now seminal reading for anyone wishing to understand the intricacies of modern marketing. Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning and Control is widely used in business schools and his many other books are similarly rigorous. Kotler is Professor of International Marketing at the JL Kellogg Graduate School of Management at Northwestern University. Key work: Marketing Management (1993).
John Kotter	Professor of Organizational behavior at Harvard Business School and world-renowned expert on leadership, culture and managing change. His published output is prodigious. Key work: A force for change (1990); Corporate culture and performance (with James Heskett, 1992).
Theodore Levitt	The German-born marketing thinker peaked early in his career with the massively influential Harvard Business Review article, ‘Marketing myopia’. It exposed the limitations of conventional thinking on marketing and exhorted companies to become marketing led rather than production led. Levitt’s later work has largely failed to match the impact of ‘Marketing mypopia’. However, his work on globalization has proved critical on developing an understanding of the forces now at work. Key work: Thinking about Management (1991).
Douglas Macgregor (1906-1964)	From 1954 until his death Macgregor was a Professor at MIT. He is best known for his development of Theories X and Y. Theory X was the motivational stick (people don’t really want to work and need to be constantly cajoled) and the carrot (give them an incentive and they will work and enjoy it). Key work: The Human side of Enterprise (1960).
Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)	Labeled ‘the Father of humanist psychology’, Maslow was head of the psychology department at Brandeis University. He developed the hierarchy of needs which proved highly influential on a number of thinkers. Key works: Motivation and Personality (1954); Towards a Psychology of Being (1962); Maslow on Management (1998).
Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949)	Prodigiously talented and perpetually underrated. Mayo received medical training in London and Edinburgh. He moved on to an Adelaide printing company and then taught moral and mental philosophy at Queensland University. Along the way he pioneered a new treatment for victims of shell shock and was the driving force behind the Hawthorne experiments in Chicago. Key works: The Human problems of an Industrial Civilization (1933); The Social problems of an Industrial civilization (1945).
Henry Mintzberg	Mintzberg’s work is rigorous, eclectic and studiously eccentric. Deeply researched in classic academic style, it takes unusual directions which make it essential reading. His 1973 book, the Nature of Managerial Work, encouraged an entirely new perspective on what managers actually do. Since then, Mintzberg has cast his intellectual net wide. He works at McGill University in Canada and INSEAD in France, this does not prevent him being one of the most vehement critics of the modern MBA. Key works: The nature of managerial work (1973); The rise and fall of strategic planning (1994).
Jane Mouton (1930 – 1987)	A social scientist who, together with Robert Blake, developed the idea of the managerial grid. This measured management styles on two dimensions – concern for production and concern for people. The concept was refined and developed over numerous books. Key work: The managerial Grid (1964).
Kenichi Ohmae	Formerly head of McKindsey’s Tokyo Office, Ohame is a brilliant thinker whose range and aspirations have increasingly expanded – they now embrace politics. His views on strategy embrace the apparent opposites of rational analysis and the irrational world of intuition. His later work covers globalization, and what he labels the Inter-linked Economy of the US, Europe and Japan/Asia. Key works: The mind of the strategist (1982); The borderless world (1990).
C Northcote Parkinson (1909-1993)	An academic who spent time at universities in the US, the UK and Malaysia. He is best known for his cynical, but all too accurate, Parkinson’s Law which observed that work expanded to fill the time allotted to it. Key work: Parkinson’s Law (1958).
Richard Pascale	Unlike many of his contemporaries, Pascale is not a prolific writer. His books only number two – The Art of Japanese Management (with Anthony Athos) and Managing on the Edge (1990) – but were bestsellers. Pascale’s approach manages to combine heavyweight theory with clarity. His message, unpalatable to many managers, is that change is not enough. He calls for transformation, discontinuous shifts in financial performance, key industry benchmarks and company culture. Organizations must reinvent themselves. Key work: Managing on the Edge (1990).
Tom Peters	Amid Peter’s exuberant stage technique and expansive writing style lie many great examples and vital messages which can be overlooked. The former McKinsey consultant champions the customer-focussed, responsive, dynamic, fast moving, humane organization. Peters believes in people; that people make a difference and that people make things happen. Unfairly criticized for the failure of some of the companies featured in in search of Excellence, Peters’ achievement is to put the humane into management. Key works: In Search of Excellence (1982); Liberation Management (1992).
Michael Porter	Harvard’s Michael Porter is the man who brought the world the concept of competitive advantage. A prodigiously talented individual, his books are required but demanding reading. Since his first success with Competitive Strategy in 1980, Porte’s audience has grown with each new book – as has his ambition. Porter has carried academic rigor and analysis to new extremes which, according to your preference, are exactly what businesses need or a rational lep too far. Key works: Competitive strategy (180); Competitive advantage (1985); Competition in Global Industries (1986); The Competitive Advantage of Nations (1990).
CK Prahalad	Professor of Corporate strategy and International management at the University of Michigan. In partnership with London Business School’s Gary Hamel, Prahalad is setting the new agenda for management. Their Harvard Business Review articles ‘Strategic Intent’ and ‘competing with core competencies’ proved highly influential and readable. Author of The Multinational Mission (with Yves Doz of INSEAD) and author (with Hamel) of Competing for the Future, the most compelling business book of the 1990s. Key work: Competing for the future (1994).
Reg Revans	The idiosyncratic Reg Revans has ploughed a lonely furrow, taking his concept of action learning to a variety of relatively obscure countries. Action learning appears blindingly obvious – it emphasizes learning from doing in groups (though putting this into practice is more demanding than it seems). Its very simplicity appears to have put off other academics from embracing it. Key work: Action learning (1979).
Edgar Schein	Schein has been with MIT for nearly 40 years and during that time has become a pioneer of organizational development. In Organizational culture and leadership, he clarified the concept of organizational cultures and showed its relationship to leadership. He is also the inventor of the terms career anchor and the psychological contract which have attracted increasing attention. Key work: organizational culture and leadership (1985).
Ricardo Semler	One of the more unlikely gurus, Semler has transformed his family business from a staid and traditional one into a model of empowerment and employee participation. Criticized by some as an eccentric rather than a maverick, Semler is a highly persuasive speaker and writer. Key work: Maverick! (1993)
Peter Senge	Director of the Centre for Organizational Learning at MIT and author of The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. Senge, almost single-handledly, propelled the concept of the learning organization onto the management agenda. Since then there has been something of a backlash with attempts at implementing Senge’s theories providing disappointing. Key work: The fifth Discipline (1990).
EF Schumacher (1911-77)	Schumacher’s Small is Beautiful is one of those books which can be found on bookshelves the world over. It has entered into the argot of management as surely as Catch-22 has penetrated popular consciousness. Yet few have actually read the book and fewer still have turned Schumacher’s theories into reality. Key work: Small is Beautiful (1973).
Alfred P Sloan (1875-1966)	Highly influential role model of the decentralized organization. His work at General Motors revolutionized the company – allowing it to quickly outperform Ford – and provided a much emulated organizational model. Only now, says Sumantra Ghoshal, are organizations shaking off Sloan’s legacy. Key work: My years with General Motors (1963).
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1956-1917)	When he wasn’t winning tennis tournaments or developing new ways to throw a baseball, Taylor developed the first coherent theory of management: scientific management. Now, it is routinely derided for its inhumane attitude to those who carry out the work, but as Peter Drucker points out, Taylor was the first man to actually begin to think about the nature of the work. Key work: The Principles of Scientific Management (1913).
Fons Trompenaars	Dutch expert on cultural diversity. Key works: Riding the waves of culture (1993); The seven cultures of capitalism (with Charles Hampden-Turner, 1994).
Lyndall Urwick (1891 – 1983)	Chief European champion of Frederick Taylor’s scientific management. He fulfilled this role to great effect, creating a classical interpretation of management. Key work: The Making of Scientific Management (with EFL Brech, 1946).
Manfred Ket de Vries	Leadership expert, based at France’s INSEAD. Voted one of Europe’s top business school gurus by the Financial Times. He has unparalleled access to some of the world’s foremost business leaders. His interest lies in the interface between international management, psychoanalysis and dynamic psychiatry.
Robert Waterman	Most famously Tom Peters’ co-author for In Search of Excellence, Waterman has since faded into the background. His books remain forceful reminders that excellence does exist. Key works: The Renewal Factor (1987); Frontiers of Excellence (1994).
Thomas Watson Sr. (1874 – 1956)	Indomitable figure behind the rise of IBM. His lasting legacy was the creation of IBM’s corporate culture which stood the test of time, until the disasters of the 1980s.
Max Weber (1864 – 1920)	Unfortunately saddled with responsibility for the invention of bureaucracy. This is a harsh interpretation of his observation that a ‘rational-legal’ organizational form was the best for the times.

Management terms:

1	Scientific management: based on the notion that there is a single ‘best way’ to fulfill a particular job; and that it is a matter of matching people to the task and supervising, rewarding and punishing them according to their performance. Under scientific management, the job of management is to plan and control the work (F.W. Taylor)
2	Bureaucratic organization: The ideal mechanical means of organizing a business characterized, according to Max Weber, by ‘precision, speed, unambiguity, knowledge of files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict subordination, reduction of friction and of material and personal costs’. Weber framed this more as a Planonic ideal than a likely reality. (Max Weber)
3	Parkinson’s Laws: Work expands to fill the time available and expenditure rises to overtake income. (Northcote Parkinson)
4	M Form: The organization of companies along multi-divisional lines seeking to combine the best of centralization and decentralization. This creates the need for strategic skills among managers at the center. (Alfred P Sloan)
5	Organic organization: an organizational model, developed by Burns and Stalker, which emphasizes ‘networks’ shared vision and values, team working which crosses functions and effective sharing of knowledge and expertise. (Burns and Stalker)
6	Shamrock organization: Term invented by Charles Handy to describe ‘a form of organization based around a core of essential executives and workers supported by outside contractors and part-time help’. (Charles Handy)
7	Strategic management: at first postulated by Igor Ansoff, strategic management was a combination of strategy planning, planning of organizational capability and effective management of resistance to change, typically caused by strategic planning. Ansoff described it as ‘a comprehensive procedure which starts with a strategic diagnosis and guides a firm through a series of additional steps which culminate in new products, markets and technologies, as well as new capabilities’. (Ansoff)
8	Management by objectives (MBO): Identifying a target and developing strategies to achieve it. Under MBO, strategy formulation is a conscious, rational process. The process is backed with hard data and analysis so that a single, right answer can be identified and a clear plan articulated. (Peter Drucker)
9	Core competencies: Gary Hamel and CK Prahalad, who made the term famous, define core competencies as ‘the skills that enable a firm to deliver a fundamental customer benefit’. (Hamel and Prahalad)
10	Value migration: Defined by Adrian Slywotzky, Richard Tedlow and Benson Shapiro as ‘the flow of economic and shareholder value away from obsolete business models to new, more effective designs’, (Slywotzky, Tedlow, and Shapiro)
11	Seven habits: Flexible and free flowing, non-hierarchical, based on participation, creative and entrepreneurial, based round networks, driven by corporate goals, utilize technology as a key resource (Tom Peters).
12	The Seven S framework: Strategy, structure, systems, staff, style, shared values, skill (Pascale and Athos).